Anthropology, also known as "the science of humanity," is a branch of science that studies human beings in various aspects, including biology, evolutionary history, and societal features that differentiate human beings from other species. Anthropologists are professionals who practice anthropology, and they study many concepts that aim to clearly define a human being.
Anthropology adopts a comprehensive perspective in exploring diverse facets of human experience. Some anthropologists delve into biological bodies’ composition, encompassing genetics, bones, diet, and health. Others delve into historical records to examine human groups’ lifestyles centuries or millennia ago, shedding light on their way of life.
Additionally, anthropologists globally immerse themselves in contemporary communities to gain an insider’s understanding. They also scrutinize how humans employ language, meaning construction, and social action organization across various social groups and contexts.
Anthropology has, throughout history, reflected evolving human relationships with other cultures, influenced by political, economic, and social dynamics. Ethnography involves studying and systematically recording human cultures. Among nascent Old World examples, ancient Greek and Roman societies studied history to forge just societies, with Herodotus pioneering early ethnography in the fifth century BCE, exploring diverse regions to comprehend conflicts.
Trade routes, illustrated by Zhang Qian's efforts, birthed the Silk Road, connecting Asia, East Africa, and Eastern Europe. Medieval explorers like Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta extensively documented the various cultures encountered along these routes.
Modern anthropology emerged during the Age of Enlightenment, shaped by scholars like Georges Buffon, but colonial influences tainted early studies, typically branding non-European cultures as sub-human. Anthropology today works to address and overcome this dark legacy.
The 19th century saw evolutionism and diffusionism theories asserting cultural superiority. Critiqued in the 20th century by cultural relativism, championed by Franz Boas, it urged understanding cultures on their terms.
Many evolutionists of the era believed that societies result from a predictable and universal sequence. Furthermore, diffusionists believed that all societies emerged from nuclei to form “culture circles” that spread their practices worldwide. Boasian cultural relativism called for understanding a culture based on its practices in its cultural and historic context, and not judging people based on moral standards.
Contemporary anthropology prioritizes in-depth studies using participant observation and ethnography, shifting from comparative approaches to exploring everyday practices in both developing and developed societies. This broadens the scope of ethnographic work.
According to North American tradition, anthropology comprises four fields: archeology, biological (or physical) anthropology, cultural anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. For many in the general public, archeology, also called archeological anthropology, is among the most morbid and mysterious of the four fields.
Archeologists dig up human remains and human-made artifacts to establish how human life has evolved. Archeology is research-based and involves analyzing history to look for gaps. This guides archeologists on where to do excavations, attempting to fill these historical gaps with evidence.
Biological or physical anthropology examines how human bodies have changed over time, and why human beings are different from other species, and how humans vary. Biological anthropology also studies other primates to understand how the human body used to work in the past.
Physical anthropologists and biological anthropologists unravel mysteries such as the relationship between long thumbs and strong gripping muscles which resulted from toolmaking. These professionals also study pathogens and the human tendency to test limits to examine how behavior has influenced diseases and injuries and their treatment.
Cultural anthropology studies living human interaction. It examines what human beings do when they get together, and the reasons behind these actions. Cultural anthropologists, also known as sociocultural anthropologists, look at how people organize themselves into groups and make rules and traditions. One of the techniques they use is participant observation.
In participant observation, an anthropologist integrates into a community, immersing themselves in its activities discreetly. By participating in customs and assisting with tasks, they aim to establish a sense of kinship, hoping that over time, the group sees them as a familiar presence, allowing for a more natural appreciation and observation of daily life.
Finally, linguistic anthropology studies things like how seemingly random sounds and gestures transform into language. This includes how native languages came about due to environmental factors that impacted how mouths, throats, vocal cords, volume, and sound types needed to communicate effectively developed.
